Body Types - An Overview

To quickly access the following sections, click on the titles below.

What are Body Types?

Body Types and the Origin and Development of Body Typing

Body Typing - who needs it?

Body Typing: Future Potential and Potential Problems

When Changing Genes is not Possible

Links and References

What are Body Types?

Why for instance, does one person suffer from diabetes and another from hypoglycemia? Why is it that one person can cope with an enormous amount of stress while another succumbs to a much smaller amount? Why does one person have a  fast metabolism while another has a slow metabolism? Why is it that one person is a bookworm while another prefers sport or physical activity? Why is it that one person is much more sensitive than another? Why is it that one person is constantly catching colds and flu while another person rarely gets any illness, and yet both people are medically 'normal'? Why is it that some people find it almost impossible to lose weight while others find it impossible to gain weight? Why is it that some people are extraverts while others are introverts?

Body typing is the study of these differences. It is based upon the fact that our physical, psychological, and behavioural differences, and our susceptibility to certain diseases, are related to internal physiological and biochemical differences, especially our own unique body type or glandular make up. Since body typing acknowledges the interplay of all these factors in our total well being, it is essentially holistic in nature. 

Prior to continuing with this article it is suggested that the reader should first have a basic knowledge of body typing systems by referring to the the accompanying article, "Traditional Medicine and Body Typing Systems".

Body Types and the Origin and Development of Body Typing

The recognition of different body types was a central part of the holistic healing systems of ancient Greece, China and India more than 2000 years ago. Although the Western tradition of ancient Greece has been replaced by reductionist scientific medicine over the past 200 - 300 years, the Indian Ayurvedic system and the Chinese Five Phases system are still utilised today. These traditional body typing systems were based upon unique insight into, and observation of, the various types of human physiques and behaviour patterns, even though the mechanisms behind these differences could not be fully understood until more was learned of human physiology and biochemistry. In spite of this, sophisticated body typing systems such as the Chinese Five Phases system ( 11, 12, 34 - 37 ) and the Ayurvedic tridosha system ( 8, 9, 10, 29 - 33 ), continued to form a central part of holistic healing systems for thousands of years.

For more details of the Ayurvedic system and the Chinese Five Phases system refer to the Traditional Medicine page.

The persistence of reductionist science in Western countries has continued to discourage holistic concepts such as body typing. While body typing became more fragmented and holistic forms of body typing ceased to be recognised, eventually the psychological types of Jung were developed ( 13,14 ). It was inevitable however, even in spite of the considerable pressures of reductionism, that the psychological types of Jung would eventually be married once again to physical build and stamina to resurrect a more holistic picture of body types. During the middle of the twentieth century it was Sheldon who categorised the physique of people and developed three basic body types, namely, endomorphs, ectomorphs, and mesomorphs ( 13,14 ). Subsequently these three basic somatotypes were analysed from the point of view of their temperament or psychological profile ( 13,14 ).

Following the work of Sheldon, the understanding of the various body types began to accelerate as science revealed the importance of the endocrine glands and the hormones they produce in determining various human characteristics, both physical and psychological. Research into glandular diseases and hormonal excesses and deficiencies eventually led to the use of glandular terminology to describe the various body types according to which glandular features are dominant ( 6 ). In the 1960's Bieler described three basic glandular types, Adrenal type, Thyroid type, and Pituitary type, each of which had definite physical and psychological characteristics ( 6 ). Since the description of the three basic glandular types by Bieler, two additional types have been described, namely, the Gonadal type, and the Pancreas type ( 7 ).

While the existence of these glandular types was becoming increasingly substantiated by science as more was learned of the effects of glands and hormones, there was still a need to understand how such glandular variations could occur in normal people who possessed no diagnosable glandular disease. How could a person display the features of having a dominant gland when medical tests revealed the presence of no glandular disease? How for instance, could a person be an Adrenal type if his glandular function and hormone levels were perfectly normal according to sophisticated medical tests? The problem here however, was not one of measuring individual hormone levels, but rather, since hormones often have opposing effects, what was needed was some way of examining the relative size and efficiency of the various glands in such a way that the possible interaction of all the glands could be assessed. Such an overall picture of glandular efficiency could not be detected by reductionist techniques which sought to focus on single glands and hormones.

Without doubt, the most significant contribution to the the scientific understanding of the mechanism behind these variations was due to the research of Roger Williams, the brilliant American scientist who pioneered research into the various physiological and biochemical aspects of human variation which he termed biochemical individuality ( 38 ). Williams' extensive studies into biochemical individuality revealed numerous variations in glandular size and metabolism in people who were considered to be medically normal. Williams reported for instance, that there was a tenfold variation in the thickness of adrenal glands, and a sixfold variation in the size of thyroid glands, in normal healthy persons ( 38 ). Williams also found a wide variation in the efficiency with which dietary nutrients were utilised in normal persons. According to Williams, these variations are responsible for many of the differences between normal people.

It is clear that the study of human typology is moving towards a more holistic view such as has been practised for most of human history. Remarkably, rather than disprove traditional holistic forms of typology, science is confirming such systems and explaining the underlying mechanisms. This is all the more remarkable in view of the fact that it has occurred in an era of scientific reductionism.

Body Typing - who needs it?

Today, in this age of sophisticated technology, there is a widespread lack of self awareness in the general community. Even amongst practitioners, knowledge appears to be increasingly clinical and insight is often replaced by high tech gadgets and sophisticated tests. If we accept that necessity is indeed the mother of invention, then we must conclude that the spiralling number and complexity of available medical tests were developed because of an increasing diagnostic need. But this creates a very disturbing problem. How can increasing medical knowledge correlate with an ever increasing need for more medical tests? Simple logic and common sense should dictate that increasing knowledge would reduce the need for tests. After all, would not perfection of human knowledge obviate the need for any medical tests at all?

We have, it would seem, substituted clinical or theoretical knowledge for insight and understanding, a fact which may be related to our mesomorphic society ( 13, 14 ) and the psychological typology of Jung ( 13, 14 ). Thousands of years ago holistic practitioners, although possessing little knowledge by today's standards, had an amazing ability to understand and document the way certain individuals reacted to their environment and also to herbal treatments. Ayurvedic practitioners for instance, recognised that various people who had a tendency to become overweight or obese ( ie. Kapha types) had reduced tolerance of damp environments ( 29 - 32 ). Such people also had reduced tolerance of "cold" foods and often preferred a hot spicy diet ( 29 - 34 ). On the other hand, Kapha types were often very tolerant of medication and required a high dose for optimal effect ( 29, 30, 31 ). In stark contrast, the thinner Pitta types were hypersensitive to anything hot and preferred cool weather ( 29 - 33 ). Whereas such abnormalities would be traditionally seen as indicating the presence of a constitutional imbalance or disharmony, today, until a definite disease could be diagnosed by modern medical tests, such abnormalities may be considered "normal". This is a tragedy since there seems little doubt that such symptoms of disharmony are the forerunner of many chronic diseases.

Like their Ayurvedic counterparts, practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine could gain an amazing amount of insight into a patient simply by observation and simple diagnostic techniques which would assist in determining the constitution or body type of a patient. In Chinese medicine for instance, the Earth person ( or person with an Earth disorder), like Kapha types, would be particularly prone to accumulate fluid and would be intolerant of humidity and moist environments ( 34, 39 ). Symptoms of common Earth diseases such as arthritis (dampness in the joints), would be aggravated by damp environments or wet weather. On the other hand, the liver or Wood person would be prone to anger, irritability and sore eyes, and, unlike the Earth person who dislikes humidity, would be most intolerant of wind ( 34, 39 ).

While their is no doubt that these traditional body typing systems were far from perfect, it is astonishing how much insight and understanding could be achieved with so little scientific knowledge. Today, the situation has been reversed, the more we learn of science, the less we seem to know about patients. Many practitioners today would be totally mystified by intolerance of various types of environment or non-allergenic reactions to foods. Intolerance of damp environments or cold damp foods ( this refers to the "energetic" quality of the food) would probably be a curiosity which is just dismissed. Although such phenomena had been learned from thousands of years of experience, now it seems, they have been unlearned. Sadly, such holistic phenomena are frequently a complete mystery in modern Western society.

In this era of hazardous medical treatments the ability to be able to predict treatment outcomes in individual patients could also be enormously beneficial. Sensitive persons, such as Vata or Pituitary types for instance, may display a sensitivity to medications (including herbs ) which is neither predicted nor understood. This sensitivity may take the form of an exaggerated response to the "normal pharmacological effects" of medication, or, on the other hand, the "side effects" may be intensified, even at low dosages. Even more difficult to understand without a knowledge of body typing, are those effects which are not normally related to the pharmacological effects of the medication but are more the result of constitutional susceptibility. For example, the fact that Pitta or Thyroid types, or in fact, anyone suffering from Yin deficiency heat, may have reduced tolerance of warm or hot herbs such as garlic, ginger, capsicum, or kava, is little understood in modern Western society. This type of constitutional intolerance may be impossible to predict or understand without a knowledge of body typing and would probably be dismissed as "idiosyncratic reactions".

On a personal level too, there is no doubt about the potential usefulness of body typing. Knowledge of one's type and also the type of others with whom one relates, is capable of improving insight and understanding, and therefore personal relationships. Our awareness is so restricted by the unique perceptions which are characteristic of our type that proper insight and relationships are impeded. Ignorance of body typing is an unnecessary impediment to understanding human differences and maximising self awareness.

Body Typing: Future Potential and Potential Problems

Certain diseases, it is believed, involve a constitutional weakness or susceptibility ( 6, 7, 13,14, 40 ). While evidence of constitutional involvement may be more readily acknowledged for diseases like CFS, diabetes and heart disease ( 7, 13,14, 40 ), other diseases such as obesity, hypertension, allergies, fluid retention, lack of resistance to infections, and manic depression, may also have a constitutional basis ( 6, 7, 13,14, 30, 31, 39, 40 ). Given these facts it is important that we fully understand what is meant by the term "constitutional disease".

Constitutional diagnosis or body typing is based upon the recognition of a deviation from a condition of optimum metabolic balance and harmony. Recognition of conditions of metabolic imbalance or disharmony are best achieved by a holistic approach, the reductionist perspective of modern medicine generally failing to acknowledge such conditions until a diagnosable metabolic disease occurs. Even then, the disease may typically be viewed as an isolated glandular or hormonal disease rather than as a condition of imbalance or disharmony as would be the case in holistic medicine. Whereas orthodox medicine defines normality by the presence of normal pathology test results, holistic medicine strives for the much higher ideal of optimum balance. Knowledge of body typing therefore, by enabling the holistic practitioner to readily identify and understand deviations from a normal or balanced constitution, permits a more cause based treatment strategy to be adopted by intervening at the most fundamental constitutional level of the disease process. While the holistic practitioner seeks to restore balance, the reductionist on the other hand will focus upon "controlling" all the various symptoms by separate treatments.

It is interesting to note for instance, the blood sugar raising or hyperglycemic effects of the adrenal hormone cortisol. In view of this effect it is hardly surprising that it is the Adrenal type of person who is said to be particularly susceptible to develop diabetes ( 7 ). If diseases such as heart disease and diabetes are linked to certain constitutional types such as the Adrenal type ( 7 ), then constitutional treatment could be initiated long before these diseases become manifest. This type of cause based strategy is a fundamental part of traditional healing systems.

Conversely, it is indeed interesting to note that asthma and allergic diseases appear to be the constitutional opposite of diabetes in that they appear to be related to underfunctioning adrenal glands or insufficient adrenal reserves ( 48, 49, 50, 51 ), a fact which is further evidenced by the successful use of cortisone to treat such diseases whereas this hormone would be expected to aggravate diabetes. In view of these facts it is remarkable that "a new study" has found that "people with asthma or other allergies may be genetically protected from type 1 diabetes" ( 52 ). While this may be a new discovery for practitioners of reductionist scientific medicine, holistic practitioners have long recognised the constitutional aspects of diseases such as asthma and diabetes. If in fact diabetes and asthma represent opposing sides of the constitutional spectrum then the current epidemic of both these diseases in modern society may have serious implications, implications which may not be clear from a reductionist perspective.

While the benefits of being able to understand the variations between different people by the use of body typing are quite clear, the ability of body typing to explain constitutional changes which occur within a given individual during different diseases or different stages of life is perhaps even more important. In theory, any disease which alters the production, utilisation, or breakdown of the various endocrine hormones, has the potential to modify or conceal a person's true genetic body type. Although certain genetic features such as bone size are unchangeable, this is certainly not so with other aspects of body type such as body shape, fat amount and distribution, and temperament. Since these types of constitutional changes would reflect complex internal metabolic abnormalities, the ability to recognise such changes may be enormously important.

I am referring here not just to primary diseases of the endocrine glands, but also to the secondary changes which may be induced by stress ( see CFS page ), whether the stress is caused by emotional or physical factors, or, perhaps more likely, is the result of chronic unresolved illness such as may result from an infectious illness or exposure to a noxious agent. Since exposure to sufficient stress, including chronic pain ( 46 ) may result in enhanced adrenal activity ( 40, 46 ), and since such changes, unless they are extreme, may be difficult to detect by normal medical tests ( 40, 71 ), the importance of being able to identify constitutional changes is of vital importance.

Perhaps one of the more important aspects of constitutional imbalance concerns the ways in which our insight and perception may be effected. Subtle changes in our insight and perception have the ability to influence the intellectual and philosophical direction we pursue, both individually and as a society. According to Vedic Science certain types of constitutional changes are characterised by reduced insight and perception so that there is a loss of "natural wisdom" ( 31 ) and the ability to perceive the "natural harmony of life" ( 31 ). This loss of perception is considered to be the cause of many diseases because it interferes with the ability to recognise and avoid potentially hazardous health practices ( 31 ). 

Interestingly, according to Rudolfer and Harrison ( 43 ), natural detoxification by dietary changes may bring about such enhanced perception that there is more awareness of one's constitutional type. In the words of these workers ( 43 ): "this catharsis enables the patient's original constitution to be unmasked revealing his congenital strengths and weaknesses. Having returned to that place of his birth, and knowing it for the first time, he can gradually ease from the period of protection to assume full activity with a new found comprehension of the order of things, and his specific place in them. Drug therapy or surgical intervention on the other hand, will mask the patient's true pathological state by their insistence upon the effective alleviation of symptoms."

More recently, studies have found that perception is related to depression. Mildly depressed people have been found to be more in touch with reality than so called "normal" people (15, 16,17,18, 41 ). This phenomena has been termed "depressive realism" or the "sadder-but-wiser" effect (15, 16,17,18, 41 ). According to research, the perception of normal people is distorted by "reality distorting, self-serving biases" (18 ) and "excessive optimism" (17) as they look at the world through "rose coloured glasses" (15; for more information about the unjustifiably optimistic nature of normal people refer to the Hypophobia page ). The notion that depressed people are somehow more in touch with the real world than are normal people who are apparently lost in a dream world created by their own excessive optimism, seems to defy common sense. Of course, this would also suggest that the aim of antidepressant treatment is to create a dream world of excessive optimism ( ie. normality; see Hypophobia page). How can it be that the brain of a "normal" person does not function as well as that of a "sick" person? Could it be that our criteria for diagnosis of depression are invalid and in reality (if we can perceive it), it is the mildly depressed people who are normal? Of course this would imply that the researchers themselves are not normal!  There is a very important lesson here if only our perception will permit us to see it.

From a holistic perspective of course, the condition of depression or, on the other hand, excessive optimism, are only significant because of what they reveal about the overall constitution. In this connection it is indeed interesting to note that it is the Adrenal type who is most likely to display excessive optimism ( 6 ). I have previously noted that excessive levels of adrenal hormones tend to cause reduced awareness because of their adaptive nature which seeks to protect and isolate a person from their surroundings. Loss of self awareness caused by stress induced adrenal activity is even part of self defence training ( 19 ). If the adrenal gland is the dominant gland in an individual, or if there is prolonged stress induced minor elevation of adrenal hormones, evidence suggests that the effect upon perception and self awareness may not be positive.

Interestingly, it has been claimed that modern society is basically mesomorphic in nature ( 13,14 ). Mesomorphic qualities such as aggressiveness, competitiveness, athleticism, extraversion and callousness are presented as the ideal qualities to emulate ( 13 ). The mesomorph, like the Adrenal type, is basically an extravert who therefore has a definite lack of self awareness ( 13, 14 ) and possesses all the excessive optimism of a "normal person". It is worthwhile noting at this point that modern science, perhaps not surprisingly, is based not upon reality, but rather, "universal optimism" ( see Science Today Quackery Tomorrow).

Although the relationship between body type and temperament has long been known, the Adrenal type typically being optimistic and extraverted, from a modern reductionist viewpoint one's temperament or psychological make-up is completely separate from the remainder of the body. For instance, in spite of the fact that it is well known that it is the adrenal type of TB patient who "usually laughs at new complications of his disease" ( 6 ), who can "stand more treatments, operations and even more lung haemorrhages than any other type of patient" ( 6 ), and is "most often discharged as arrested or cured" ( 6 ), modern reductionist thought, while acknowledging the relationship between optimism and susceptibility to or recovery from disease ( 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60 ), claims that this relationship is purely psychological. In stark contrast to the optimist or Adrenal type, when it comes to the "darkly brooding" ( 6 ) Pituitary type of TB patient, "very few patients of this type make a recovery" ( 6 ). Or in simplistic modern psychological terms ( 57 ), "patients who were scared or pessimistic about their recovery did not recover as quickly as the optimists or as well." 

Although the reductionist may simplistically claim that the poor recovery of the pessimist is merely all in the mind and therefore may be easily overcome by a change of attitude, it must be admitted that the popularity of such an approach is traditionally confined to those disorders for which no other effective medical treatments are available. The use of positive thinking to treat diseases from hypothyroidism to stomach ulcers is soon abandoned when correct diagnosis and effective pharmacological treatments become available, a lesson which although frequently repeated, often remains unlearned. In spite of these facts there is a continuing tendency to overlook the fact that one's disposition is related to one's glandular make-up or body type. 

Such an attitude is further confirmed by the modern statistical approach to medicine which has repeatedly shown that an optimistic attitude is ( somehow ) related to recovery ( 55, 57, 58 ). A positive attitude has even been claimed to offer protection from heart disease ( 56, 59, 60 ). However, as is so often the case in modern science, this statistical correlation is usually misconstrued as representing a cause and effect relationship. It is hardly surprising that the strength and resilience of the Adrenal type is associated with better recovery outcomes, but why is this obvious common sense fact not generally acknowledged by modern medicine? Especially since the relationship between body type, vitality, temperament, and recovery outcomes has been understood in a holistic sense for thousands of years, why are these relationships still doubted by so many in the scientific community?

Notwithstanding my above comments about the Adrenal type, it should not be thought that this type of person possesses an ideal type of constitution, although the resilience and short term recovery ability of such persons may be spectacular. The Adrenal type, as is the case with other types, represents an imbalance condition and therefore possesses metabolic strengths and weaknesses. While the Adrenal type possesses a spectacular recovery ability, and an ability to withstand invasive medical procedures, they also have a particular susceptibility to develop various chronic degenerative diseases ( 7 ) such as heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, high blood pressure, and blood clots. Excess endogenous or exogenous cortisol may also cause ( 66, 67, 68, 70, 73 ) premature ageing, insomnia, unrefreshing sleep, immune problems, obesity, osteoporosis, Alzheimer's disease, cataracts, glaucoma, Aids, abdominal distension and mental effects ranging from ( 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73 ) depression and anxiety to euphoria, mania, psychosis or schizophrenia. Although the occurrence of depression and euphoria in hypercorticolism may at first seem contradictory, this is not necessarily so since euphoria cannot be maintained indefinitely and frequently leads to depression ( 71 ). Excess cortisol, as I will discuss below, produces many of the features of ageing. From the point of view of longevity a balanced constitution will undoubtedly be superior to the various glandular types.

Interestingly, while longevity is believed to be largely constitutional or genetic ( 61, 77, 106, 166, 167 ), it is interesting to note that centenarians do not typically possess the large frame and excessive weight which would be expected of Adrenal types ( 61 ). While lower body weight ( especially fat ) in old age is associated with longevity ( 5, 62 ), low birth weight on the other hand is consistently associated with ongoing health problems ( 63, 64, 65, 103; see also Hypohobia page, Stress and Adaptation ). Of interest here is a recent report that asthmatic women who do not use inhaled steroids are likely to give birth to underweight daughters who will also develop asthma ( 113 ). In fact the connection between low birth weight and subsequent chronic disease has become so well established that it has given rise to the "foetal origins of disease hypothesis"  (157,158,159,160,161,162). According to this hypothesis, inadequate nutrition during pregnancy predisposes to various chronic diseases in later life including heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and syndrome X or the metabolic syndrome (157,158,159,160,161,162).

In spite of the fact that those who adopt a mathematical approach to longevity claim we are living longer and longer ( see Health Trends page ), there is increasing evidence that the incidence of "ageing diseases" is increasing ( see Health Trends page ). Furthermore, ageing diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and osteoporosis, are increasingly being linked to elevated cortisol levels ( 67, 68, 74, 75 ), especially an elevated cortisol/DHEA ratio ( 76 ) a fact which further underlines the importance of constitutional balance. The importance of these findings is further highlighted by the fact that subtle changes in hormone levels are not detectable by current tests ( 71 ).

Failure to acknowledge the importance of balance at an individual constitutional level may have far reaching consequences not only for the health of the individual, but for society generally. There is clearly a real danger that some human characteristics which could result from constitutional imbalance may actually be considered to be desirable human qualities. This is an inevitable result of a reductionist perspective which, because it fails to perceive the totality of the changes and therefore the negative aspects of such imbalance conditions, misinterprets the directional nature of such changes as being positive. The suggestion that there is a fine line between an idiot and a genius may represent a degree of wisdom that it would be foolish to ignore.

Misuse of body typing, it has been aptly noted, may lead to prejudice and discrimination ( 13, 14 ). But this is already occurring now due to ignorance of body typing. Victims of obesity for instance, are often blamed for their condition on the basis of an assumption that their obesity has been deliberately caused by lifestyle practices. Such an assumption is inconsistent with a long held community perception that obesity is frequently due to a metabolic problem. Even as long as three decades ago such a view was not without scientific validation ( 42 ). According to James and Trayhurn ( 42 ), "there is increasing evidence that obesity in man has an important genetic component" which is evidenced by several observations, including the fact that "normal weight children of obese parents have a lower metabolic rate than children of non-obese parents", and identical twins maintain similar weights even though they are reared in different environments. Repeated studies of families, twins, and adoptees have firmly established the fact that genetics plays a significant role in obesity ( 97 ). Even by the age of six, children of obese mothers are 15 times more likely to be obese than children of lean parents (165).

According to Pritchard and co-workers ( 98 ):

In further confirmation of this view is more recent scientific evidence of a genetic basis for obesity, especially involving the metabolic syndrome or alterations in hormones such as "leptin" or "ghrelin" ( 23, 24, 25, 27, 45, 99,100,101 ). Recently more evidence has emerged linking obesity to genetics ( 174,175,176,177 ). Not only do obese women convert carbohydrates into fat more quickly than normal women ( 53 ), but furthermore, in the past two decades it has been demonstrated that reductions in dietary fat levels have been associated with "massive" increases in obesity ( 54 ) while increased physical activity was also observed to correlate with increased weight gain (114). In fact, the widespread consumption of margarine, skim milk, soy milk, and other low fat foods has correlated with increasing obesity. I can recall when margarine and soy milk were virtually non-existent and bread smothered with "dripping" was the order of the day. But obesity was not such a problem in those days. 

In an interesting recent study entitled (163) "Decreased Energy Levels Can Cause and Sustain Obesity", Wlodek and Gonzales draw attention to the fact that since obese individuals who eat excessively are ingesting excessive caloric energy it would be expected that such people would have excess energy, while in reality the reverse is true. We are constantly advised by nutritionists and health authorities to increase our calorie intake to boost our energy while sweet sugary snack foods are often recommended for a rapid energy boost. Using this logic there is no doubt that those people who ingest the most calories should also be the most energetic. As is pointed out by Wlodek and Gonzales (163) however, obese people generally have more fatigue and a diminished energy supply. These workers summarise:

Given the failure of low fat diets to control obesity it is indeed interesting to note that modern science is increasingly acknowledging the connection between obesity and stress ( 88, 89, 90,136,137 ), an acknowledgement perhaps that obesity may frequently be a constitutional disorder after all. Excessive cortisol levels resulting from exposure to chronic stress may cause obesity and storage of excess fat around the abdomen ( 88, 89, 90,136,137; see also Darwinian Medicine ). Excessive cortisol levels may also cause "leptin resistant obesity" ( 90 ), and may lead to insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome or "syndrome X" ( 90, 91 ,102,136,137,172,178,179,180,181,182 ), diabetes ( 88, 89, 92,173 ), heart disease ( 88, 89, 91, 92 ), osteoporosis (136), and problems with memory and brain function ( 88, 92; see also Darwinian Medicine ). The metabolic effects of chronic stress may be so severe that a "pseudo-Cushing state" may result (136). Stress of course, as I have previously indicated, may be an internal phenomena resulting from the body's attempts to battle a chronic illness, infection, or toxemia. Even exposure to chronic noise stress may increase cortisol levels and lead to chronic degenerative diseases (138; see also Darwinian Medicine).

Recently, in an article entitled "Chronic Stress and Obesity: A new view of comfort food", Dallman and colleagues (164) further confirm the connection between stress and abdominal obesity. According to these workers chronically elevated levels of stress hormones causes increased consumption of sweet and fatty foods resulting in bingeing, especially during the night. Interestingly, this bingeing does apparently have an adaptive purpose. According to Dallman and colleagues the build up of abdominal fat tends to have a feedback effect upon the HPA axis and therefore serves to make the person feel better, temporarily, from the effects of stress hormones. These workers further point out that stress induced eating and obesity is characterised by only a mild increase in the levels of stress hormones whereas anorexia nervosa patients have much higher cortisol levels. Apparently the difference is associated with the insulin levels which are low in anorexia nervosa but are elevated in stress induced obesity syndromes such as syndrome X (164).

In spite of this evidence, the campaign to make all obese people feel personally responsible for their condition has been mostly driven by medical authorities. 

Because lifestyle practices may undoubtedly cause obesity in some cases, it is totally unjustified to therefore conclude that all cases of obesity may be explained so simply. Why is it, one may well ask, that many people today seem totally incapable of acknowledging the fact that some people, through no fault of their own, find it difficult to lose weight while others find it difficult to gain weight? The common medical expectation that appropriate diet and exercise regimes will cure all cases of obesity is totally lacking in scientific evidence. Body typing, properly applied, has the ability to promote an understanding of the genetic or metabolic basis of human differences and thereby reduce this type of discrimination.

It is indeed interesting to note that the importance of obesity to orthodox medicine has only come about in recent times due to increasing evidence of a link between excessive weight and other diseases such as heart disease and diabetes ( 20, 21, 22 ). Paradoxically however, recent research by Nilsson et al ( 87 ) has revealed that loss of weight in middle aged obese men may even be associated with increased mortality. Prior to the discovery of the link between obesity and ill health modern medicine had little interest in obesity, presumably because obesity was seen in total isolation from the rest of the body. Interestingly, as far as holistic medicine is concerned, obesity has traditionally been associated with a certain type of constitution and therefore has been recognised as evidence of an imbalance or disharmony in the body for thousands of years ( 29 - 34, 36, 39 ).

Scientific evidence to substantiate the traditional practice of body typing is increasing. It is now increasingly being recognised that attitudes, as well as physical attributes, may have a strong genetic component. Athleticism, preference for mental activity, support for capital punishment, aggressiveness, leadership capacity, and even enjoyment of roller coaster rides, have recently been found to possess a genetic component ( 44 ). The fact that aggressiveness and violence may have a biological or biochemical basis ( 47 ) also underlines the importance of genetics and body typing. As has been noted by Olson et al ( 44 ), " there are few attitude topics that have consistently yielded null heritability estimates." Perhaps even more important is the suggestion that "heritable attitudes are psychologically stronger than are attitudes that are not heritable" ( 44 ). This of course, is probably related to the fact that attitudes are not directly inherited, rather, it is the underlying constitutional or biological cause of the attitudes which is actually inherited ( 44 ).  In stark contrast with the popular and sociologically trendy view that behavioral tendencies are due solely to upbringing or environment, science is increasingly proving that bad behaviour and aggressiveness is inherited from our parents (167,168,169,170,171). Science increasingly supports body typing.

Olson and co-workers conclude ( 44 ):"in the long run, we stand to gain the most understanding from perspectives that integrate biology and experience in accounting for individual differences."

When Changing Genes is not Possible

Although it is clearly impossible to change the genetic constitution with which one is endowed, there are nevertheless, many treatments which may assist in restoring balance to an out of balance constitution. It is not my intention here to focus in detail upon specific constitutional treatments, for this is the responsibility of the experienced holistic practitioner. Rather, I wish to promote a general awareness of some of the possibilities of constitutional therapy. I should however emphasise that correct constitutional treatment, unlike symptomatic treatment, may be exceedingly difficult, especially when constitutional imbalance has become more genetically entrenched.

Traditional holistic practitioners have been utilising constitutional treatments for thousands of years. Such treatments utilise lifestyle changes and the use of special diets and herbs to assist in restoring constitutional balance ( 29 - 37, 39 ). These treatments focus upon strengthening constitutional weaknesses and perhaps counteracting constitutional excesses. Although increasing knowledge of endocrinology and nutrition has now enabled us to adopt a more scientific approach to constitutional therapy, we must be careful not to sacrifice holistic principles in our eagerness to modernise. From a modern perspective, undoubtedly the best starting point for a holistic approach to restoring constitutional balance is the use of  nutrition. Since the function of our endocrine glands is partly determined by adequate nutrition, a knowledge of which specific nutrients are necessary for correct function of these glands is a prerequisite for successful nutritional therapy. Any nutrient deficiencies should be positively eliminated. 

We know for instance, that various B vitamins, particularly vitamin B5, are necessary for adrenal function. Also necessary for adrenal function are zinc, magnesium, and vitamin C. Similarly, iodine, tyrosine, zinc, selenium, and vitamins A, E, B2, B3, and B6 are said to be necessary for thyroid function, although it should be noted that higher doses of iodine are inhibitory. Whereas most nutrients will have no positive effect unless a deficiency is present, this is not necessarily true for some of the essential fatty acids which may be particularly useful for constitutional treatment. The omega 6 fatty acid gamma linolenic acid for instance, found in the oils of evening primrose, borage and black currant, may have a tonic or stimulating effect upon the adrenal glands. This is also true for tonic or adaptogenic herbs such as liquorice or ginseng.

For those persons who are overstressed or who suffer from excessive adrenal activity the use of adrenal inhibitors such as magnolia bark, epimedium, alpha linolenic acid ( flaxseed oil ) or phosphatidylserine may be beneficial. Various adrenal inhibitors or anti-cortisol products are now beginning to emerge  ( 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 152 ). These products are commonly based upon the two Chinese herbs Hou Po (magnolia bark) and Huang Bai, phosphatidylserine (142,143,144,145), epimedium (135,146), and L-theanine. Some products may also contain the stimulant weight burning herb citrus aurantium which is claimed to be free of the side effects of ephedra (156,157,158) although, according to Talbott (153), such stimulant herbs stress the body, increase cortisol levels, and cause weight gain over the longer term. 

Other supplements which are claimed to have an anti-cortisol effect include procaine hydrochloride, the main ingredient of Gerovital or KH3 (123). Procaine hydrochloride forms the basis of Anticort, a new product which is currently undergoing trials to be officially registered as an anti-cortisol treatment in AIDS patients (127,128,129). For more information about anticortisol treatments go to http://qualitycounts.com/fpcortisol.html or see The Cortisol Connection (153).

Other products such as vitamin C (124,125,126), vitamin B6 ( 93, 94, 95, 96 ) and magnesium (153) may also have an anti-cortisol effect, although vitamins frequently do not have any positive effect unless a deficiency exists. DHEA is also said to be particularly important in this regard since it is claimed to have an anti-ageing effect because of its ability to counteract the ill effects of cortisol ( 78, 79, 80, 81, 82 ). Cortisol apparently becomes more toxic when there is a deficiency of DHEA ( 79, 80, 81, 83 ). This vital discovery warrants extensive additional research, not only because of the important ill effects of excess cortisol, but because it seems that a deficiency of DHEA can produce all the negative effects of excess cortisol even though cortisol levels remain normal. It should be noted that it is illegal to import DHEA into many countries, including Australia, because of its androgenic or testosterone effects. However, DHEA can be obtained from various compounding chemists provided that it has been medically prescribed ( 104, 105 ) . There is also a new form of DHEA, 7-Keto DHEA, which reportedly does not affect testosterone levels and therefore does not have the disadvantages of DHEA ( 84, 85, 86 ). 

The effectiveness of many of these products (123) for lowering cortisol levels have yet to be substantiated in spite of the results of some initial trials ( 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112 ). Some of these products may even have a mild stimulating effect, perhaps due to an increase in DHEA levels. Although there are various claims that DHEA may have an anti-cortisol effect, the feedback I have received indicates that this hormone, and also 7-Keto DHEA, may in some cases cause excessive stimulation and insomnia, even in exceedingly small doses. This is probably not too surprising since DHEA (147,151), like cortisol and other steroid hormones (148,149,150), may cause severe mania in susceptible individuals (for more info about mania refer to the Hypophobia page). Gerovital or KH3 may also have an extremely stimulating effect, perhaps because of the antidepressant side effects of procaine hydrochloride (132,133) or the ability of procaine to actually increase cortisol levels or cause euphoria (130,131,134). 

Of all the commonly available cortisol lowering herbs it would appear that  epimedium (135,153,154) is one of the more effective although it is a moderately toxic herb which may cause some side effects. The cortisol lowering activity of epimedium however, apparently resides mainly in the water soluble fraction and not the more toxic alcohol soluble icariin fraction (153,154,155). Unfortunately, many preparations on the market are standardised for icariin content and these are probably not as effective as full spectrum or water extracted forms (153,155). 

If  cortisol lowering products prove to be effective they may have widespread applications, not only for anxiety, stress and insomnia, but also for weight loss and the metabolic syndrome or syndrome X and other consequences of elevated cortisol levels. Since the metabolic syndrome causes obesity and perhaps diabetes and is believed to be associated with elevated cortisol levels or adrenal hyperfunction, the potential of anti-cortisol products may be enormous. Weight loss diets specifically constructed for the metabolic syndrome do not address underlying hormonal abnormalities and could not be expected to be as effective as any treatment which normalises any contributory disturbances in hormone levels.  

In spite of the claimed effectiveness of anti-cortisol supplements it should be borne in mind that the ultimate goal, from the perspective of holistic medicine, is to bring about a condition of constitutional balance rather than simply to lower the levels of one hormone. The ability to lower elevated cortisol levels is but one step in this process. The other problem here is, because of feedback inhibition of cortisol production, anticortisol products may have limited effectiveness in the longer term since cortisol is needed to suppress the HPA axis (155,156). 

In contrast to the effects of adrenal inhibitors and anti-cortisol supplements, adrenal tonics on the other hand, may considerably aggravate the condition of Adrenal types or those suffering from excess cortisol. The careless use of adrenal tonics such as liquorice, ginseng, and evening primrose oil when there are symptoms and signs of adrenal overactivity and cortisol excess is cause for considerable concern. Conversely, inappropriate use of adrenal inhibitors by anyone suffering from adrenal exhaustion may also considerably aggravate their condition. There is clearly much to be learned about the correct use of anti-cortisol supplements and adrenal tonics.

Much remains to be learned of body typing and constitutional therapy and I do not pretend that I have done any more than scratch the surface in this brief overview. I hope however, that I have succeeded in stimulating interest and awareness of body typing and drawn attention to the disadvantages of a fragmented reductionist approach to health care. The importance of the concerns expressed by Arraj ( 13,14 ) regarding prejudice and discrimination from the misuse of body typing must be acknowledged. This should not deter further progress and development of body typing however, although the emphasis must surely be placed upon holism and balance. In this way, hopefully, any misuse of body typing will be minimised.

For further information about body typing refer to the Traditional Medicine page or try the following sources ( 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7,  8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 26 - 37 ).  The interested reader is especially referred to the excellent in depth study by Tyra and James Arraj which I referred to earlier and which contains an extensive bibliography.

Links and References